Synonymy in English Learning objectives: after you have studied the material you should be able to: 1. Define the notion of "synonymy", give the definition of the term "synonyms" by Russian and foreign linguists. 2. Speak on the criteria of synonymy, the sources of synonymy and the main synonymic patterns. 3. Give the classification of synonyms (ideographic, stylistic, absolute). 4. Analyze the entry (article) from a dictionary of synonyms. Literature to be studied: • "English Word" by Arnold p. 177-197. • "A course in Modern English Lexicology" by Ginsburg. • "English Lexicology" by Antrushina. • "Practical Lexicology" by Kasheeva pp.70-73, ex. 1, 2; pp.76-77. • "English Synonyms" by Potapova LA. • "Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms". Springfield. Mass. USA. 1942. • Потапова И.А. Краткий словарь синонимов английского языка. Пособие для учителя. Л, 1957.
    
    A characteristic feature of a vocabulary of any language is the existence of synonyms, which is closely connected with the problem of meaning of the word.
    The most complicated problem is the definition of the term "synonyms". There are a great many definitions of the term, but there is no universally accepted one. Traditionally the synonyms are defined as words different in sound-form, but identical or similar in meaning. But this definition has been severely criticized on many points.
    The problem of synonymy is treated differently by Russian and foreign scientists. Among numerous definitions of the term in our linguistics the most comprehensive and full one is suggested by I.V. Arnold: "Synonyms - are two or more words of the same meaning, belonging to the same part of speech, possessing one or more identical meaning, interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational1 meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape2, shades of meaning, connotation, affective value, style, emotional coloring and valence3 peculiar to one of the elements in a synonymic group."
    This definition describes the notion "synonymy", gives some criteria of synonymy (identity of meaning, interchangeability), shows some difference in connotation, emotive coloring, style, etc. But this descriptive definition as well as many others has the main drawbacks - there are no objective criteria of "identity" or "similarity" or sameness of meaning. They all are based on the linguistic intuitions of the scholars.
    From the definition follows, that the members of the synonymic group in a dictionary should have their common denotational meaning and consequently4 it should be explained in the same words; they may have some differences in implication connotation, shades of meaning, idiomatic usage, etc.
    Hope, expectation, anticipation are considered to be synonymous because they all mean "having smth in mind which is likely to happen..." But expectation may be either of good or of evil. Anticipation is as a rule an expectation of smth good. Hope is not only a belief but a desire that some event would happen. The stylistic difference is also quite marked. The Romance words anticipation and expectation are formal literary words used only by educated speakers, whereas the native monosyllabic hope is stylistically neutral. Moreover, they differ in idiomatic usage. Only hope is possible in such set expressions as to hope against hope, to lose hope, to pin one'shopes on smth. Neither expectation nor anticipation could be substituted into the following quotation from T.Eliot: "You don't know what hope is until you have lost it". Criteria of Synonymy
    Not a single definition of the term synonym provides for any objective criterion of similarity or sameness of meaning as far as it is based on the linguistic intuition of the scholars.
    Many scholars defined synonyms as words conveying the same notion but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. In "Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms" its authors used the semantic criterion along with the criterion of interchangeability5, which we may see from the definition.
    A synonym is one of two or more words which have the same or nearly the same essential6 (denotational) meaning. It is not a matter of mere likeness in meaning, but a likeness in denotation which may be expressed in its definition. The definition must indicate7 the part of speech and the relations of the ideas involved in a term's meaning.
    Synonyms, therefore, are only such words as may be defined wholly8 or almost wholly in the same terms. Usually, they are distinguished from one another by an added implication or connotation, or may differ in their idiomatic use or in their implication9.
    They usually are interchangeable within limits, but interchangeability is not the final test, since idiomatic usage is often a preventive of that. The only satisfactory test of synonyms is their agreement in connotation. Classification of Synonyms
    The outstanding Russian philologist A.I. Smirnitsky suggested the classification of synonyms
    into 3 types:
    1. Ideographic synonyms - words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of
    meaning: to understand - to realize
    to expect - to anticipate
    to look - glance - stare - peep - gaze healthy - wholesome - sound - sane
    2. Stylistic - words differing only in stylistic characteristics:
    to begin - to commence - to high
    to think - to deem
    enemy - opponent - foe - adversary
    to help - to aid - to assist
    courage - valour - dauntlessness - grit - guts
    3. ............